Criteria

Ways of studying instrumental behavior

Reward training

Omission training

Punishment

Escape

Phenomena

Common behavioral principles

Preparedness

Adding extra (free) reinforcers degrades performance

Learned helplessness (Maier, Overmier, Seligman)

Triadic design

Master, yoked, unshocked

Observe a behavioral deficit in a shuttle avoidance task (on FR2)

Learned helplessness hypothesis: motivational and associative deficit

Therapy and immunization

Role of endogenous opioids

Helplessness and immune function

Helplessness and anxiety

As a model of PTSD

Mechanisms

Instrumental learning within the spinal cord

Triadic design

Testing under common conditions

Controllable stimulation fosters learning

Uncontrollable stimulation undermines learning

Immunization and therapy effects

Uncontrollable stimulation disrupts recovery after spinal cord injury